The Rebellious History of America, Part 1: Rebellions During the Colonial Era

Most who are familiar with American history know that America was born of a rebellious spirit that led to a successful revolution against Great Britain.  They are also aware that less than eighty years after American independence was recognized by the Treaty of Paris, a bloody struggle known as the War Between the States in the South and the American Civil War in other venues changed the shape of the nation.  However, with the exceptions of the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party, which were precursors to the Revolution, many are unaware of the many rebellions that have occurred in America.  

History demonstrates that Americans are an independent, rebellious, and sometimes impatient people who will take up arms against authority whenever their interests are neglected, their rights are trampled, their industry is abused, or their honor is offended. While not all American rebellions have been well organized, successful, or even moral, they have all had a role in shaping the national character of a people who have traditionally rejected oppression.  Following is a synopsis of rebellions that occurred before the American Revolution:

Bacon's Rebellion

Fueled by personal rivalry between Nathaniel Bacon and Royal Governor, Sir William Berkely; nepotism,  taxes that were perceived as unfair, dissatisfaction with Indian policies, and economic problems marked by low tobacco prices and rising costs associated with mercantilism, Bacon's Rebellion began in Virginia in 1676.  Governor Berkely was driven from Jamestown, his home was looted, and the city was burned to the ground on September 19, 1676.  Bacon died suddenly of dysentery the following month and the rebellion began to dissolve.  Twenty-three men were hanged in the aftermath and Governor Berkely was recalled to England.

The Culpeper Rebellion

After reassuming governorship of Albemarle County, North Carolina in an unauthorized manner, the unpopular Thomas Miller began making arbitrary arrests and collecting customs.  In response, on December 3, 1677, John Culpeper, accompanied by a group of armed men, raided the home of Timothy Biggs, arrested him, and seized county records that were held there.  The next day, they arrested Miller, successfully petitioned for the arrest of customs collector Henry Hudson in Currituck, and seized the marshal of Chowan County and his records. John Harvey was ultimately appointed governor and Culpeper was arrested for treason but never punished.

Coode's Rebellion

By 1689, the largely Protestant colony of Maryland was dissatisfied with the rule of a Catholic minority led by Charles Calvert, the 3rd Baron Baltimore.  Calvert had traveled to England in 1684 to address a border dispute with Willliam Penn and to answer charges that he favored Catholics in the colony. In his absence, his nephew, George Talbot became acting governor but was replaced after killing a customs official. William Joseph, also a Catholic, became the next acting governor and his controversial lectures on morality stirred dissent.  When James II was deposed, Calvert sent a messenger proclaiming the new Protestant monarchs, King William and Queen Mary II but the messenger died en route and the proclamation did not reach the colony.  Irate Protestants, incensed by what appeared to be lack of support for the new king and queen, began raising an army.  In the summer of 1689, 700 Protestants commanded by Colonel John Coode defeated an army led by Deputy Governor Henry Darnall. Coode assumed the governorship, Catholicism was outlawed in Maryland, and the Calvert family's royal charter for the colony was withdrawn.

The Boston Revolt

Revocation of the charter of the Massachussetts Bay Colony, dissatisfaction with James II, and unpopular policies of the Governor of the Dominion of New England, Sir Edmund Andros, which included the restriction of town meetings, enforcement of the Navigations Acts, and support of the Church of England led to a gathering of militia on April 18, 1689.  Officials, including the Governor, were arrested and sent to England for trial.  Government in accord with the previous Charter was resumed and the Province of Massachussetts Bay was formed in 1691.

Leisler's Rebellion

Leisler's Rebellion was an outgrowth of the Boston Revolt. Captain Francis Nicholson, the Lieutenant Governor installed by the unpopular Sir Edmund Andros, ruled without a legislative assembly, which infuriated colonists.  He lost support in the Army following a rumor that he wished to impose Catholic rule and an ill fated remark in the midst of concerns over French and Indian attacks led to reports that he was prepared to burn New York.  The militia was called out, occupied Fort James, and demanded the keys for the powder magazine.  Nicholson left the city on June 10, 1689 and Jacob Leisler, a militia captain, assumed control of the province until he was executed for treason on May 16, 1791 by the provincial governor, Colonel Henry Sloughter.  When Sloughter died suddenly on July 23, 1691, some suspected that he had been poisoned.

Cary's Rebellion

Thomas Cary was removed as Deputy Governor of North Carolina for enforcing the oath requirement that excluded Quakers from office.  He was succeeded by William Glover who also enforced the oath. Cary returned in 1707, gathered the support of those he had formerly opposed, and regained the governorship through an election in the assembly in 1708.  Thereafter, he removed the oath requirement and restored Quakers to government.  Cary's governorship was not recognized by the Lords Proprietors who chose Edward Hyde as Deputy Governor. When it became apparent that Hyde would not support the Quakers, Cary refused to recognize him.  With Hyde seeking his arrest, Cary fled to a plantation that had been fortified with cannon.  Later, he attacked Hyde's plantation on June 30, 1711 with an armed brigantine. The attack was repulsed and Cary was arrested but released within a year.

The Knowles Riot

After Commodore Charles Knowles impressed 46 men into the Royal Navy, a mob of about three hundred gathered in Boston on November 17, 1747. British officers and seamen were captured and held hostage until, after three days of rioting, the impressed men were released.

The War of the Regulation

The War of the Regulation was a disjointed and poorly organized series of disturbances that were prompted by corruption in local government, extortionate fees, and a tax system that was abused by dishonest sheriffs in North Carolina. Citizens in Anson, Orange, and Granville counties began airing their grievances in 1764.  In 1765, unauthorized settlers on a tract in Mecklenburg county took up arms and drove away surveyors charged with collecting quitrents.  In 1766, a group influenced by the Sons of Liberty met at Maddock's Mill seeking the investigation of office holders but public officials refused to cooperate.  In 1768, "the mob", further agitated by Governor William Tryon's demand for taxes to build an elaborate mansion at New Bern announced that its purpose was to regulate public grievances and the movement became known as the Regulation.  In September of 1770, a group of 150 Regulators broke into a court in Hillsborough, ran the judge from the bench, whipped and humiliated attorneys, and seriously injured Edmund Fanning, a hated ally of the Governor.  When it was rumored that the Regulators were gathering in force to march on New Bern, the Assembly passed the Johnston Act making rioters outlaws who were subject to being killed on sight.  In turn, the Regulators declared Fanning an outlaw.  On March 19, 1771, Governor Tryon called out the militia, which met an armed but disorganized force of Regulators on May 16 at Alamance.  Though at least twice in number, the Regulators were not equal to the trained, organized militia that was supported by artillery.  They were quickly defeated and the rebellion dissolved.  Thirteen prisoners were taken: James Few was executed at the camp and six others were executed near Hillsborough the following month.

The Paxton Boys

After the French and Indian War, Scots-Irish settlers on the frontier of Pennsylvania claimed that Indians frequently raided their homes. On December 14, 1763, an armed group, known as the Paxton Boys, attacked a peaceful Conestoga camp, killed six, and burned their homes.  An inquest ruled the killings murder and the sixteen survivors were placed in protective custody at Lancaster. These survivors were attacked by the Paxton Boys on December 27.  Six adults and eight children were killed and their bodies were scalped and mutilated.  A reward was offered for the capture of anyone involved in the attacks but none were ever identified. In January of 1764, the Paxton Boys gathered a group of two hundred and fifty men and marched towards Philadelphia, dispersing after being met at Germanton by Benjamin Franklin and other leaders who agreed to read their grievances before the legislature.

Black Boys Rebellion

Settlers who had suffered from Pontiac's Rebellion were outraged when the government of Pennsylvania reopened trade with Indians.  On March 6, 1765, a group of settlers led by James Smith blackened their faces, dressed as Indians, and destroyed supply wagons containing rum and gunpowder that were destined for Fort Pitt. Becoming known as "Black Boys" they continued to disrupt shipments, fired upon Fort Loudon, and captured Fort Bedford on September 12, 1769 following the arrest of some of their members by British soldiers.  When troops were sent arrest Smith, one man was killed and Smith was charged for manslaughter; he was later acquitted.

The Stamp Act Crisis

The Stamp Act, passed by Parliament on March 22, 1765, was a tax on paper products that was enacted to defray the expenses of the British victory in the French and Indian War and to pay some 10,000 British soldiers that were billeted in the American colonies. While Pontiac's Rebellion of 1763 helped justify this army, the greater reason for its presence was the political expedience of maintaining the employment of officers who held favor with Parliament.  Colonies were expected to contribute to their defense and the resulting backlash was not anticipated by colonial agents or Parliament.  The stamp act brought questions regarding the extent of Parliament's authority over the colonies and raised the constitutional issue of taxation without representation since the American colonies did not elect representatives to Parliament. Legislative protests were passed in all of the colonies, with the exception of Georgia and North Carolina, and street protests erupted in Boston on August 14, 1765.  Andrew Oliver, the  distributor of stamps, was forced to resign after his office was torn down and his home attacked.  On August 26, the home of Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchins was heavily damaged.  In Rhode Island, the homes of stamp distributors Dr. Thomas Moffat and Martin Howard were attacked, and in New York, a crowd of 2,000 damaged the home of Governor Cadwallader Colden.  The Stamp Act Congress met in October and issued the Declaration of Rights and Grievances that asserted natural rights.  The Stamp Act was repealed on March 18, 1766.

Protests Against the Townshend Acts and the Boston Massacre

When the Stamp Act was repealed, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act defining the extent of its legislative authority over the colonies. The Townshend Acts were enacted on June 29, 1767 in order to make a political statement and raise revenue to fund the British military presence in North America.  The Acts proved unpopular and the Massachusetts House of Representatives petitioned for repeal.  Letters were sent to other colonial assemblies which resulted in petitions from Virginia and Pennsylvania.  Soon after, the Massachusetts Assembly was dissolved by the governor and a riot broke out (the Liberty Riot) in response to customs officials seizing the Liberty, a ship owned by John Hancock, following allegations of smuggling.  Due to this unrest, Boston was occupied by the British Army, merchants began boycotting the importation of British goods in protest of the Acts, and citizens confronted customs employees and soldiers. Tensions elevated after eleven year old Christopher Seider was killed on February 22, 1770 when Ebenezer Richardson, a customs employee, fired into a crowd demonstrating outside his home.  On March 5, a British officer was insulted by Edward Garrick near the Custom House and the sentry, Private Hugh White,  struck him with his musket.  A crowd gathered and challenged White to fire his musket; an officer and seven soldiers came to his assistance.  The crowd began throwing snowballs and other objects and the soldiers fired into them without a command to do so.  Three citizens were killed instantly and two others were fatally wounded and the clash became known as the Boston Massacre.  British troops were removed from the town, two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter, and the rest were acquitted.

The Boston Tea Party

Additional taxes on tea levied in 1767 increased the demand for smuggled Dutch tea in Britain and America which resulted in a surplus of tea and an annual loss of £400,000 for the British East India Company.  The East India Company sought to get the taxes on tea reduced but Parliament was unwilling to repeal the unpopular Townshend duty. The Tea Act of 1773 gave the East India Company a full refund on duties on tea imported into Britain and allowed it to export directly to the colonies.  This allowed surplus tea to be sold by appointed consignees cheaper than smuggled tea, even with the Townshend duty in effect, and it was envisioned to alleviate some of the financial problems of the East India Company.  The East India Company to unsuccessfully attempted to conceal the Townshend duty and the issue of taxation without representation resurfaced.  Other complaints included the funding of some official salaries by the Townshend duty which minimized colonial influence and likely financial losses that threatened merchants who were engaged in smuggling and legitimate importers who were not appointed consignees. Ensuing protests caused consignees to resign and ships laden with tea returned from Philadelphia and New York with their cargoes; in Charleston, unclaimed tea was seized by customs agents.  After the Dartmouth arrived in Boston Harbor, Samuel Adams issued a resolution asking that the captain send the ship back without paying the duty. Governor Hutchinson refused to allow the ship to leave and two more ships arrived carrying tea.  On December 16, 1773, following a gathering at the Old South Meeting House, a crowd dressed as Mohawk Indians boarded the ships and dumped 90,000 pounds of tea into the water.  The Port of Boston was closed and the Coercive Acts were enacted limiting town meetings, putting the government of Massachusetts directly under British control, allowing the governor to move trials of accused officials to other colonies or Britain, and providing more effective quartering for British troops in America.

The Annapolis Tea Party

The Peggy Stewart arrived at Annapolis, Maryland on October 14, 1774 carrying fifty-three indentured servants, a ton of tea, and other cargo.  Anthony Stewart, co-owner of the ship, guaranteed the payment of the tea tax in order to get the indentured servants ashore and the committee that oversaw the boycott on tea agreed to allow the other cargo to be unloaded if the tea was burned.  The next day, Mathias Hammond published an inflammatory handbill that gathered public support.  The agreement to burn the tea was rejected and Stewart's life was threatened.  On October 19, Stewart agreed to burn the ship as a concession and the Peggy Stewart was burnt to the water line.

Responses to the Coercive Acts

The Coercive Acts further increased tensions between Great Britain and the American colonies. Outraged colonists in Massachusetts, influenced by the Sons of Liberty, drove the Justices of the Court of Pleas in Berkshire from the bench, attacked Lieutenant Governor Thomas Oliver at his home and compelled him to resign from office, ran Attorney General Jonathan Sewall out of Boston, took guns from the home of Brigadier General Timothy Ruggles, forced military officers in Plymouth to resign their commissions, compelled Sir William Pepperell to cease conducting business and collecting debts, and disrupted the Court of Common Pleas in Springfield. The First Continental Congress met on September 5, 1774 in response to the Coercive Acts and agreements were reached to boycott British goods beginning on December 1, 1774 and to cease exports after September 5, 1775 if the Acts were not repealed.  The effects of these economic measures never reached fruition.  On April 18, 1775, British troops marched to Concorde to seize arms and ammunition. When they came under fire at Lexington, the American Revolution began.

Read Part 2